The Temper Tantrums Children And Young People Essay

The Temper Tantrums Children And Young People Essay Mothering is the interaction style of mother with her children. A mother should be patient and good listener. She should keep herself cool in negative circumstances. She should her child at every step. She should be responsible for needs and belongings of her child. She should take interest in the activities of her child. It will bring positive changes in her child (Freud, 1946). Fathering is a big responsibility. Father is a role model for his child. Child observes the behavior of his father and imitates it. He has to take the responsibility of his childs every need like food, shelter, clothing and education. He should affection and love towards his child. Little words of appreciation and encouragement can develop the confidence of child (Runkel, 2008). 1. Temper tantrums Temper tantrums are very challenging. If a toddler is becoming tantrum then try to divert his attention. Try to engage him in another activity and give him choices. A daily routine schedule can be established with regular eating, sleeping and play times. It will result a happy and developed behavior. 2. Potty training Children might oppose potty training. But mother should not enforce him potty sitting but she should keep herself calm. Sleep affects potty training session. Mother should take care about his sleep. She should set their timing by limit food and drink 2 hours before bed .She should encourage for a potty trip before sleep. Bullying is violent behavior that can be verbal or physical. Boys show bullying behavior mostly by physical actions like pushing, kicking or hitting. While girls engage in verbal bullying. Parents can help their adolescents deal with the common issue of bullying by following these guidelines: Parent should understand the situation and seriousness of bullying. Parents must recognize initial behavior that led to bullying. Parents should use suitable strategies according to the nature of child. Parent should educate their child about bullying that is not accepted behavior and they must avoid it. Parent should teach their children to cope stress. Physical exercise, spending time in playing or spending time in the company of nature can cope stress (Campbell, 2005). In limited caretaking parents are primary caretaker and grand parents have limited connection with their grand children. Grandparents can not involve in the education of their grandchildren. They can not check their school records. But in involuntary caretaking grand parenting, grand parents are primary care taker. They have full-time custody over them and responsible for their every matter. Grandparents have positive impacts on the life of grandparents. They change their life style and built up positive character of their grandchildren. Grandchildren become aware of dealing with different circumstances of life without parents. They behave as responsible person and become more disciplined. They did not feel alone but being loved and feel satisfied. Grandparents told them past stories and about their traditions and cultural values and they become aware of cultural values. Due to positive attitude towards life, they take interest in studies and show good performance in studies. Due to these positive impacts of grandparents on the life of grandchildren, parent should include them to influence their childs life. National Extension Parent Education Model provides research based information about parenting. It improves parenting skills. It assists parents to care themselves first. By caring themselves, their stress level will decrease which will decrease gap between parent. And close relationship brings confidence in child. It enables the parents to understand the behavior of their children by observation. Parents understand the needs of their children by their behavioral cues. It enables the parents to guide and discipline their children effectively. Consistency in guidance play significant role in the development of child. It makes the parents to nurture their child which brings positive outcomes and increase their level of competence. It practices the parents to motivate their children which provides opportunities to students to learn more and more. And they develop intellectually and become responsive. Poverty refers to economic hardships and meeting the basic needs of life. It impacts both parents and children. It resists parents to become good parents. It increases the stress level of parents which result into bad attitude towards children. It may led to child abuse. It effects physical health of children due to insufficient money. When they do not meet their basic needs, they effects psychologically and show mental and behavioral problems. It lowers down the educational outcomes of children. Education of child is combined responsibility of parents and children. Parents can support their children in the classroom in many ways. They meet the teachers face-to-face on regular basis to about the progress of their child. They should try their level best to attend schools field trips and concerts. It send a message that they take care about the education of their child. There are following two outside resources to support your family: Parents should act as teacher. They should guide their family members. It is their responsibility to provide medical services to their family. Divorce is a somber decision. It breaks down a family bond and effects the children both psychologically and emotionally. Parental loss is major effect. Child feels alienated and become victim of anxiety and depression. He has to face many problems in school. He is teased by his peer group. Moreover, he has to face financial problems sometimes. Parents can encounter act the negativity and support their children in following way: social support by parents can help them to adopt positive attitude towards life. Parents have to make their children to face multiple situations in school and how to cope with them. Take a calendar and set your time schedule for whole day morning to night. Avoid wastage of time from morning to evening. Then follow your time table. It will enhance the lives of their children. Parents should themselves in childs school functions like field trips and concert. As, it send a message that they take care about their children. Overweight consider body weight with respect to body composition or height. Overweight children have chances of sever obesity in adulthood. Overweight leads to serious physiological health problems. It affects mental development of children and cause psychological problems like anxiety. It involves high risk of asthma, cardiovascular diseases like high blood pressure and high cholesterol. It leads to musculoskeletal and fatty liver disorder. It causes orthopedic problems and agitation during sleep. Fat accumulation resists insulin production and cause diabetes. Parents can help their children in following ways: They should make their children to adopt healthy life style by changing their eating habits. They should develop their routine with maximum physical activities to burn their calories. It may include sports or just playing. They should let them avoid carbohydrates and junk food. They should let them eat fresh fruits and vegetable instead of packed juices. Physical disable children are very sensitive. It is great task for parent to handle them positively. Parents can help their child in different fields of life in many ways. Parents should adopt positive attitude towards their children. They should take them as burden. It will increase their pain and sufferings. They should try to understand their problems and help them in finding solution of these problems. Like other children, choice making is a great and difficult task for them. Parents should guide and help them in this concern. They should grant them emotional support in classroom activities. They should encourage them. It will bring confidence and positive learning outcomes. They should teach the peer group their disable child to offer their help their help respectfully and may not damage their self-respect socially. They should assess their children to search creative ways to involve physical disable child to different play activities. For example, it is easy for disable child t o play with blocks on a table with his peer group, sitting on his wheel chair. Adopted parents may face many fears and natural insecurities after adopting a child. Adopted child also feels alienation and anxiety due to loss of their biological parents. Some children feel curiosity about their genetic history, which will create confusion and mistrust towards their parents. It will lower their level of self-esteem. Adopted parents can help them in their grievances for their separation from their biological parents. They should tell him about his genetic history and help him to find their identity. It will develop trust on adoptive parents and establish good relationship and raise their level of self-esteem. Some of this information has been taken from Caught in the middle: Protecting the children of high-conflict divorce. Because it manages the custody case of contested child and evaluate parent child relationship and parenting skills effectively. There is variety of child care program due to different school of thought. There are many positive effects of s quality childcare program. High quality childcare programs in childhood lead to academic success in next life. While poor parents child can not compete them in academic performance. By effective strategies, children show positive behavioral change. It also leads to intellectual development a child. You can convince parents that your program is ideal childcare program by informing them about your high objective for intellectual and behavioral development of a child, effective plans to achieve your objectives, and its positive effects. Parents often wish that a parenting manual came with their children. A it suggests that they are member of their childs classroom. An appropriate parenting model which is suitable for every social class, race and ethnic group convey to parents that your classroom is tolerant, supportive and encouraging to all families.

Graduation Speech: We Dit It! :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

After being at County High for four years I can honestly say I will never forget my time here. I've met tons of people and have had some great experiences. I'm really honored to be given the chance to speak at our graduation. I've spent time with my fellow graduates and have gotten a comment on each of our staff members: "Nancy has always been there for me through boys, family and whatever. I'm grateful for her friendship." "Lynn just can't get mad, which was always cool with me." "Without Vickie, County High wouldn't be County High. She is our glue." "Mr. Leatherman taught us how to take care of plants and sheep. He kicked us out of class a lot, but we all love him anyways." "Frank is the 'picture master' and the reason why most of us are graduating." "Rusti has brought a new ray of sunshine to the daycare and has been an inspiration to all of us." "Persis was always warm-hearted with unique ideas and creative inventions." "Mary whole-heartedly tried to make things run smoothly and made sure every senior was on the ball." "Jerry always has a joke to share with us." "Renee had high expectations for her students and really tried to help us meet them." "Alison is a motivator. She wanted us to be the best she knew we could be. "Leanne: settle down and relax. You don't always have to work so hard." Angie brought some Southern hospitality to school and is the sweetest thing." "Krystal has taken charge of daycare and we're glad to have her with us." "Kathy was so kind and tried her best to help us learn math because it really is important." "Bruce was always doing his best to help us pass class and was always there to give advice. We all miss him." Every person I met through County High had some impact on me, whether they became my best friend, enemy or secret crush.

American Arbitration Association

The American Arbitration Association (AAA) focuses on providing organizations or individuals with alternative dispute resolution services. In the United States, American Arbitration Association provides people with administrative services. Arbitration is usually used to resolve commercial disputes and it can either be mandatory or voluntary. The association offers its services to people abroad through the International Centre for Dispute Resolution.The administrative services that are offered by ICDR and AAA include, setting of hearings, providing settlement through mediation, providing the users with crucial information on dispute resolution options, and appointment of arbitrators and mediators. The American Arbitration Association in its work faces several challenges which need to be addressed in order to perform well. Introduction The American Arbitration Association (AAA) is an enterprise whose role is to arbitrate and to resolve disputes between parties.It was founded in 1926 af ter the Arbitration Society of America was consolidated with the Arbitration Foundation and the Arbitration Conference. It has the duty to administer arbitration proceedings and to provide alternative dispute resolution services to the people. Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) embraces the dispute resolution processes and techniques that are applied outside the government judicial process (American Arbitration Association, Accessed on April 13, 2009).Through the AAA rules, the International Centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR) is able to administer arbitration at an international level. The ICDR was established in 1996. In America, the AAA acts as the country's primary provider of arbitration and mediation services. The mediators who are employed in the institution are highly respected professionals who have great experience in industry and business law. The mediators are also highly trained in efforts to ensure that they provide high quality mediation services to address dispute s.The term arbitration is one form of alternative dispute resolution which occurs outside the court. This requires the parties involved in a dispute to be bound by the decision of the arbitrators. In addition, the American Arbitration Association provides its services abroad through the International centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR). The AAA is engaged in efforts that aim at moving cases through mediation and arbitration in an impartial and fair manner. In this paper, the important role of the American Arbitration Association and the challenges it faces in its work will be discussed.Discussion Role of the American Arbitration Association The American Arbitration Association offers arbitration services to parties that may be in a dispute or experiencing a conflict. In the United States, the American Arbitration Association assists citizens to resolve disputes by administering arbitration proceedings. Through the proceedings, the association assists individuals or organizations wh o are involved in a dispute to solve it outside the courts.The case is usually reviewed and a decision that is legally binding to both sides imposed. An impartial adjudicator who is in charge during arbitration proceedings is expected to give his/her final decision which is final and binding. The American Arbitration Association benefits people or organizations greatly because it is often much faster in solving disputes as compared to litigation in court. This therefore becomes very crucial is saving a lot of time and resources that could be used in resolving a dispute in court.Because arbitration proceedings and award are usually non-public, the parties involved in a dispute can be able to resolve a dispute through confidential proceedings. Furthermore, business enterprises or organizations find arbitration more flexible and cheaper than court cases. In any arbitration proceedings, a contract need to be signed which includes an arbitration clause that names or acknowledges the Amer ican Arbitration Association as the organization that will be responsible for administering arbitration between the involved parties.The association has a primary duty to provide administrative support to the arbitrations when they are presented to a panel of arbitrators or a single arbitrator. Arbitrators who are chosen are selected in accordance with the agreement of the parties or in accordance with the association’s rules if the parties fail to agree (American Arbitration Association, 2006). The American Arbitration Association has a long history and great experience in providing people with alternative dispute resolution services.Another major role the AAA plays in resolving disputes is by administering cases starting from filing to closing. Administrative services are offered to both the American citizens, as well as those who are abroad through the International centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR). Some of the administrative services that the American Arbitration Asso ciation and ICDR provide to the people include settling disputes through mediation, setting hearings, and the appointing the arbitrators and mediators who are in charge of cases that are presented.The association ensures that both mediation and arbitration cases are handled in an impartial and fair manner. To ensure that people are provided with effective alternative dispute resolution services, the American Arbitration Association is involved in the designing and the development of alternative resolution (ADR) systems for courts, unions, law firms, corporations, and government agencies. In addition, people who desire to learn more about alternative dispute resolution are able to receive training, education and publications from the association.Election services are also provided by the American Arbitration Association. The American Arbitration Association has shown its commitment to provide customer focused alignment of its resources by creating five divisions. These divisions incl ude the International, the commercial, state insurance, and construction and labor/employment/elections disciplines. These alternative dispute resolution disciplines encompass expertise in various and specific case loads (Lynch, 2001). This has made it easy for people to access necessary information about dispute resolution.The creation of the divisions provides customers with more customized services which can effectively address the specific disputes are presented in the association. The dispute resolution services that American Arbitration Association offers to the Americans involve construction, consumer, technology, employment, intellectual property, financial services, and health care and international trade conflicts. However, the association is not limited to addressing conflicts in these areas only.The alternative dispute resolution resources at the American Arbitration Association offer education and training services, the association’s rules, a panel of neutral med iators and arbitrators, as well as case administration services. These resources are utilized to ensure that real world and cost effective solutions are provided to the consumers, counsel, business, government agencies, and industry professionals (Brunet, 2006). Case administrations are offered by the American Arbitration Association in conjunction with its Dispute Avoidance and Early Resolution procedures and rules.The Arbitration and mediation procedures and rules are also offered. In case administration, a dispute resolution process begins with the filing of a case which is then followed by the selection of an appropriate mediator and arbitrator . The hearing of the cases then follow. A final decision is then made after the case hearings and then the case is closed. To assist with the case procedural elements, the association appoints skilled case managers. In addition, by providing clients with an AAA Arbitration map, the association ensures that the clients are guided through t he case processes, and advice given to them on the available options.The clients are able to benefit from the advice offered by the association on how to best manage the process by saving on time and cost. To choose a neutral for a case, a more customized approach by the American Arbitration Association provides customers with the association’s enhanced neutral selection process for large complex cases (LCC). The parties to the LCC are able to get access to five tools that based on the client-selected criteria enhance screening options. To win customer service, the association has put into place a case management team.In this approach, a case manager act as the primary point person who has the ultimate responsibility for a particular case that is given to the entire case management team. This has enabled the association to assure and give confidence to clients that cases are always addressed appropriately. In order to avoid and resolve disputes early before issues arise, the association provides customers with early dispute resolution services. The American Arbitration Association acknowledges that dispute is inevitable hence having proper mechanisms to avoid and quickly resolve disputes is crucial (Ury, 2000).The need to act proactively in providing formal dispute resolution treatments and avoiding disputes has made it necessary for AAA to develop early dispute resolution services. To assist the clients to be well prepared, to avoid, and to minimize challenges that result from disputes, the association offers various dispute avoidance and easily resolution services. Arbitration requires the involved parties to submit a dispute to impartial persons who offer an â€Å"award† which is the final and binding decision when an arbitration case is over. Awards are made in writing and are always binding to the parties.This varies with mediation in that, mediation facilitates negotiation and communication between the parties in dispute. A mediation proces s encourages the parties in dispute to voluntarily make decisions that will end the dispute. Mediation process is considered to be an effective way of resolving disputes prior to litigation or arbitration. The association provides its arbitration and mediation services by providing the AAA rules and procedures to govern ADR processes and to increase customer’s access to the associations’ well trained and screened neutrals.The association’s neutrals have great knowledge, skills, and experience in resolving disputes. The association has over 7, 000 neutrals located in various parts of the world, and their conduct is guided by the AAA code of Ethics. When parties file a case, then the association provides the parties with information about the neutrals. To ensure that all arbitration and mediation cases are fair, the association has developed rules that need to be followed to solve disputes in state programs, consumer, labor, employment and commercial disputes.The international division of the American Arbitration Association is referred to as the International Centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR). The establishment of the ICDR aimed at providing other individuals and organizations around the globe with services that the AAA was providing to the American people. Just like the American Arbitration Association, the ICDR has a primary responsibility to resolve disputes and to administer cases impartially. The ICDR has shown good organization and expertise in the administration of the international arbitration cases.The International Centre for Dispute Resolution has established cooperative agreements with various nations and institutions in order to facilitate the filing and hearing of arbitration cases (Christian and Gabriele, 2006). The ICDR has managed to do this by establishing agreements with 43 countries and 62 arbitral institutions world wide. The agreements allow the filing and hearing of cases to be done anywhere in the world. A case th at is filed based on ICDR international rules require case managers to start working on ways through which the client can be provided with up to date progress of the case.The case managers have great experience in dealing with overseas arbitration and mediation issues and are fluent in at least 13 languages. The centre has a world wide panel of over 400 independent mediators and arbitrators who have the primary responsibility of hearing and resolving cases. Each year, the ICDR handles several hundred multinational cases. The association has its offices in Mexico, Ireland, Mexico City, Dubai and New York. Through the American Arbitration Association national roster of Arbitrators and mediators, experienced and respected experts from the business and legal communities can serve the people.The association provides clients with information on alternative dispute resolution information through published books, periodicals, and on line courses. The American Arbitration Association book st ore offer videos of various issues about ADR and enhances all individuals' conflict management skills. Challenges facing the American Arbitration Association One major challenge that the American Arbitration Association faces concerns the International Centre for Dispute Resolution. The ICDR offers its service to many individuals and organizations all over the globe.In its work, the centre receives cases that aim at resolving international conflicts. In the contemporary society, international disputes keep on increasing as nations seek to achieve economic prosperity and political interests (Lynch, 2001). The ICDR has the mandate to administer the cases presented to it impartially and with fairness. Due to the sensitivity of international conflicts, the ICDR faces the challenge of how to resolve international conflicts or disputes in an impartial manner due to the factors that may a case complicated.The association has always asserted its commitment to fair and equal treatment of ind ividuals or organizations. In addition, the association is committed to ensuring that it continues to be diverse in opinion, its services, and its staff. The challenge is how to ensure that the association continues with its commitment to diversification. Furthermore, the association faces the challenge of how to effectively recruit professionals who will act as representatives at a global level, hire diverse staff, and nominate individuals from minority groups to leadership rules.In solving international conflicts, the International Centre for Dispute Resolution faces the challenge of giving a fair judgment in disputes that are politically motivated. Although the ICDR may resolve a dispute, lack of cooperation from one of the parties involved in the dispute is a great challenge when conducting case proceedings. When it comes to international disputes in the environment field, the ICDR faces the challenge of resolving disputes while at the same time respecting the involved nations, international and bilateral agreements that provide for the settlement of such disputes.Having states comply with the international obligations has become an important issue in international obligations. Conclusion The American Arbitration Association since its establishment has served people with dispute resolution services. The association has gained a lot of experience in providing alternative dispute resolution services to people world wide. Examples of these services include arbitration and mediation. Apart from providing its services in the United States, the association provides alternative dispute resolution services to people at an international level through the International Centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR).In addition, the association in efforts to provide high quality services to the customers has developed effective strategies through disputes between parties can be solved in a fair manner. Many people and organizations are now filing cases with the American Arbitr ation Association due to the benefits it has proved to offer to the customer. However, the association faces several challenges which it needs to address in order to serve the customers appropriately. References American Arbitration Association. 2006. ADR and Law.JurisNet, LLC Publishers American Arbitration Association. www. adr. org. Accessed on April 13, 2009 Brunet, D. 2006. Arbitration Law in America: A Critical Assessment. Cambridge University Press Christian, U. , and Gabriele, K. 2006. Arbitration and Mediation in International Business Lynch, J. 2001. â€Å"ADR and Beyond: A Systems Approach to Conflict Management†, Negotiation Journal, Volume 17, Number 3, July 2001, Volume, p. 213. Ury, W. 2000. The Third Side: Why We Fight and How We Can Stop. Penguin Putnam. New York

Europe and the American Revolutionary War

Fought between 1775 and 1783, the American Revolutionary War, otherwise known as the American War of Independence was primarily a conflict between the British Empire and some of its American colonists, who triumphed and created a new nation: the United States of America. France played a vital role in aiding the colonists, but accrued great debt in doing so, partly causing the French Revolution. Causes of the American Revolution Britain may have triumphed in the French and Indian War of 1754–1763, which was fought in North America on behalf of Anglo-American colonists but it had spent considerable sums to do so. The British government decided that the colonies of North America should contribute more to its defense and raised taxes. Some colonists were unhappy with this - merchants among them were especially upset - and British heavy-handedness exacerbated a belief that the British weren’t allowing them enough rights in return, even though some colonists had no problems owning slaves. This situation was summed up in the revolutionary slogan â€Å"No Taxation without Representation.† Colonists were also unhappy that Britain was preventing them from expanding further out into America, partly as a result of agreements with Native Americans agreed after the Pontiac rebellion of 1763–4, and the Quebec Act of 1774, which expanded Quebec to cover vast areas of what is now the USA. The lat ter allowed French Catholics to retain their language and religion, further angering the predominantly Protestant colonists. Tensions rose between the two sides, fanned by expert colonial propagandists and politicians, and finding expression in mob violence and brutal attacks by rebel colonists. Two sides developed: pro-British loyalists and anti-British ‘patriots’. In December 1773, citizens in Boston dumped a consignment of tea into a harbor in protest of taxes. The British responded by closing down Boston Harbour and imposing limits on civilian life. As a result, all but one of the colonies gathered in the ‘First Continental Congress’ in 1774, promoting a boycott of British goods. Provincial congresses formed, and the militia was raised for war. 1775: The Powder Keg Explodes On April 19th, 1775 the British governor of Massachusetts sent a small group of troops to confiscate powder and arms from colonial militiamen, and also arrest ‘troublemakers’ who were agitating for war. However, the militia was given notice in the form of Paul Revere and other riders and was able to prepare. When the two sides met in Lexington someone, unknown, fired, initiating a battle. The ensuing Battles of Lexington, Concord and after saw the militia - crucially including large numbers of Seven Year War veterans - harass the British troops back to their base in Boston. The war had begun, and more militia gathered outside Boston. When the Second Continental Congress met there was still hope of peace, and they weren’t yet convinced about declaring independence, but they named George Washington, who had happened to be present at the start of the French Indian war, as leader of their forces. Believing that militias alone would not be enough, he started to raise a Continental Army. After a hard fought battle at Bunker Hill, the British could not break the militia or the siege of Boston, and King George III declared the colonies in rebellion; in reality, they had been for some time. Two Sides, Not Clearly Defined This wasn’t a clear-cut war between the British and the American colonists. Between a fifth and a third of the colonists supported Britain and remained loyal, while it’s estimated another third remained neutral where possible. As such it has been called a civil war; at the close of the war, eighty thousand colonists loyal to Britain fled from the US. Both sides had experienced veterans of the French Indian war among their soldiers, including major players like Washington. Throughout the war, both sides used militia, standing troops and ‘irregulars’. By 1779 Britain had 7000 loyalists under arms. (Mackesy, The War for America, p. 255) War Swings Back and Forth A rebel attack on Canada was defeated. The British pulled out of Boston by March 1776 and then prepared for an attack on New York; on July 4th, 1776 the thirteen colonies declared their independence as the United States of America. The British plan was to make a swift counterstrike with their army, isolating perceived key rebel areas, and then use a naval blockade to force the Americans to come to terms before Britain’s European rivals joined the Americans. British troops landed that September, defeating Washington and pushing his army back, allowing the British to take New York. However, Washington was able to rally his forces and win at Trenton, where he defeated German troops working for Britain, keeping morale up among the rebels and damaging loyalist support. The naval blockade failed because of overstretching, allowing valuable supplies of arms to get into the US and keep the war alive. At this point, the British military had failed to destroy the Continental Army and ap peared to have lost every valid lesson of the French and Indian War. The British then pulled out of New Jersey, alienating their loyalists, and moved to Pennsylvania, where they won a victory at Brandywine, allowing them to take the colonial capital of Philadelphia. They defeated Washington again. However, they didn’t pursue their advantage effectively and the loss of the US capital was small. At the same time, British troops tried to advance down from Canada, but Burgoyne and his army were cut off, outnumbered, and forced to surrender at Saratoga, thanks in part to Burgoyne’s pride, arrogance, desire for success, and resulting poor judgment, as well as the failure of British commanders to co-operate. The International Phase Saratoga was only a small victory, but it had a major consequence: France seized upon the chance to damage her great imperial rival and moved from secret support for the rebels to overt help, and for the rest of the war they sent crucial supplies, troops, and naval support. Now Britain couldn’t focus entirely on the war as France threatened them from around the world; indeed, France became the priority target and Britain seriously considered pulling out of the new US entirely to focus on its European rival. This was now a world war, and while Britain saw the French islands of the West Indies as a viable replacement for the thirteen colonies, they had to balance their limited army and navy over many areas. Caribbean islands soon changed hands between the Europeans. The British then pulled out of advantageous positions on the Hudson River to reinforce Pennsylvania. Washington had his army and forced it through training while camped for the harsh winter. With the aims of the British in America scaled right back, Clinton, the new British commander, withdrew from Philadelphia and based himself in New York. Britain offered the US a joint sovereignty under a common king but were rebuffed. The King then made it clear he wanted to try and retain the thirteen colonies and feared that US independence would lead to the loss of the West Indies (something Spain also feared), to which troops were sent from the US theater. The British moved the emphasis to the south, believing it to be full of loyalists thanks to information from refugees and trying for piecemeal conquest. But the loyalists had risen before the British arrived, and there was now little explicit support; brutality flowed from both sides in a civil war. British victories at Charleston under Clinton and Cornwallis at Camden were followed by loyalist defeats. Cornwallis continued to win victories, but tenacious rebel commanders prevented the British from achieving success. Orders from the north now forced Cornwallis to base himself at Yorktown, ready for resupply by sea. Victory and Peace A combined Franco-American army under Washington and Rochambeau decided to shift their troops down from the north with the hope of cutting Cornwallis off before he moved. French naval power then fought a draw at the Battle of Chesapeake - arguably the key battle of the war - pushing the British navy and vital supplies away from Cornwallis, ending any hope of immediate relief. Washington and Rochambeau besieged the city, forcing Cornwallis’ surrender. This was the last major action of the war in America, as not only was Britain faced with a worldwide struggle against France, but Spain and Holland had joined. Their combined shipping could compete with the British navy, and a further ‘League of Armed Neutrality’ was harming British shipping. Land and sea battles were fought in the Mediterranean, the West Indies, India and West Africa, and an invasion of Britain was threatened,  leading to panic. Furthermore, over 3000 British merchant ships had been captured (Marston, American War of Independence, 81). The British still had troops in America and could send more, but their will to continue was sapped by a global conflict, the massive cost both of fighting the war - the National Debt had doubled - and reduced trade income, along with a lack of explicitly loyal colonists, led to the resignation of a Prime Minister and the opening of peace negotiations. These produced the Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3rd, 1783, with the British recognizing the thirteen former colonies as independent, as well as settling other territorial issues. Britain had to sign treaties with France, Spain and the Dutch. Aftermath For France, the war incurred massive debt, which helped push it into revolution, bring down the king, and start a new war. In America, a new nation had been created, but it would take a civil war for ideas of representation and freedom to become a reality. Britain had relatively few losses aside from the US, and the focus of empire switched to India. Britain resumed trading with the Americas and now saw their empire as more than simply a trading resource, but a political system with rights and responsibilities. Historians like Hibbert argue that the aristocratic class which had led the war was now deeply undermined, and power began to transform into a middle class. (Hibbert, Redcoats and Rebels, p.338).